Levendary cafe case study Essay

1. Statement of Problem: What are the problems being faced and the most important 3-4 decisions the company needs to make regarding the situation of the company in China. The company transformation from private equity ownership with an immediate shift of CEO marked new challenges for the company. The company has been going through rigorous changes to keep up with the strong performance track record. However, the distinction of the profiles and management approach of the two CEOs was obviously noticed by the subordinates. The intelligent handling of management issues and concerns with subsequent impact on the employees and consumers mark the importance and sensitivity of the decisions of Mia Foster. The response and performance of China Market are the primary problematic area of the company. The management is piled with issues and skepticism on the ground of the equation generated out of new CEO, new Market, new strategies and new reporting procedures. The dire need of management is to visit location with ample supporting information and vigilant approach to take hold over the situation. The core areas to be addressed in this reference includes the dil emmas of swirled market reputation of the company, skepticism over the company’s potential to grow as a multinational brand, competitor’s rivalry and in house mismanagement issues. An immediate and focused response to the illustrated concerns is essential at this point of time to take hold of the situation before it gets any worst. The solutions devised in this reference are illustrated below; a.  Product Image in Market. b. Communication plan (Internal / External) c. Documentation of Policies and procedures d. Marketing strategy development 2. Alternatives: What are three different courses of action she can take to deal with Louis Chen and solve these various issues? Clearly explain. The importance of the concerns with the necessity to strategically move to address the issues is obvious. The different courses of action that can be adapted to respond the requisites are referred below: a. Department Heads are to be aligned over a platform with allocation of KPI in their respective fields in the light of the strategic objectives. b. The board of directors is to be supported by an in house team to monitor and coach the resolutions. c. A third person consultation service can be hired with an objective of desired goals. 3. Decision: Recommend one course of action. Convince us why this one is best and will help fix the problems. Address any criticism that this decision is likely to face Amongst the suggested options the first option of allocation targeted objectives as KPIs of the department head is the most suitable, as it will utilize in house resources and direct monitoring of the in charge. At the same time, the possibility of information leakage or blame game is further at the diminished end if this option is opted. 4. Action: List and describe 4-5 action steps to turn your plan into reality and implement the plan A comprehensive and concise action plan to support the strategy is suggested below for your perusal. a. Development and establishment of company processes and policies. b. The communication of policies amongst all branches. c. Development of communication model that is separate links for internal communication with a user friendly website for consumers. d. The hiring of a regional media manager and financial analyst to keep the track on the path. e. Regular observation of agendas over the Board meetings. f. Allocations of target oriented KPI’s under the observation of the strategic goals.

Five Ways to Kill a Man

In this very blunt poem, Edwin Brock describes five distinct eras in which death had taken place. It is also hinted how man has evolved in their methods to kill themselves. Each stanza represents a different time and place. This is ranged from the biblical era to the mid-twentieth century. Different phrases within the stanzas give away which era Brock is referring to. All of which have different meanings and a very unemotional tone to them. â€Å"And one man to hammer the nails home. † The first stanza features the phrase above.It refers to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, when nailing a person to wood using nails to hold the victim was capital punishment. The people are assumed to be Roman, since this form of capital punishment was only practiced by this group in ancient times. The line in which â€Å"a crowd of people wearing sandals† reinforces the idea of the people being Roman. Brock suggests that in order to do something as gruesome as killing a person, all one wo uld need was a person, some wood, as well as nails.Things become more a tad more complicated in the â€Å"war or the roses†, or the European Middle Ages when weapons come into play. â€Å"A length of steel, shaped and chased in a traditional way† applies to swords or really any type of weapon that could be used â€Å"†¦to pierce the metal cage he wears†¦Ã¢â‚¬  or armor. Brock illustrates how wars were fought for honor. â€Å"At least two flags†, is referring to two different armies, or royalties that fight against each other so that one can gain glory and celebrate their victory by having a banquet. Gas warfare in the First World War is described in the third stanza.In this time, men would blow mustard-gas, or chlorine gas, at their enemy when the wind would be blowing in the right direction. In this time, â€Å"mud ditches† were also introduced, allowing for soldiers to hide from their enemies as well as attack without being in full view. â⠂¬Å"Round hats made of steel† describes the helmets that soldiers would wear for protection. In the forth stanza, the â€Å"age of aeroplanes† describes being to dispose of the enemy by only â€Å"pressing one small switch†. This means killing by bombing, as what was done in world war two. Since bombing was practiced by he Germans, the Japanese, as well as the Americans, no one can be too sure which nation Brock is referring to, if any specifically. However, since the line â€Å"an ocean to separate you, two systems of government, a nation’s scientists, several factories† it is implied that it is referring to the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. This is because both nations used every scientist possible as well as every factory in order to find new ways to destroy one another. â€Å"A psychopath†, is mentioned in regards to Hitler. The last stanza is even broader than the last.Purposely making it to where the reader’s own op inions can take form and assume their own reasonable explanations. â€Å"Simpler, direct, and much more neat is to se he is living somewhere in the middle of the twentieth century, and leave him there. † In my own interpretation of this line, I think Brock was trying to say to us that it’s so much easier to kill a man in this day and age than it was in biblical times or the Middle Ages. Man has evolved so much in their attempt to perfect their way of killing, that all one would have to do is leave a man in this day and age and death would be able to find him.

Dear Parents

Dear parents, I know raising a child can be stressful all on its own. But you have a bigger issue than most parents, raising a deaf child. I bet you're wondering what should you do? Should you both learn how to sign, should the child grow up talking instead of signing. There are many big decisions for the two of you, but I am going to give you the pros and cons of the child growing of signing or talking. The pros of your child growing up talking are that you will be able to communicate clearly, as well as not learn another language. The cons of your child talking are that it will be harder for your child to communicate with you, a lot of time will be on the child's ability to lip read and pronounce vowels and letters the child can't hear. The pros of your child growing up signing are that they will communicate easily with people, they can still do just about everything a hearing person can do, and they will most likely be happier. The cons are that you will have to adjust your whole life to signing, and going out of your way to make sure your child is welcome, as well as try to be an interpreter, or hire one. I know this is a very difficult decision, but I think your child should be number one in your life, and that maybe your child being deaf isn't as bad as it seems, and maybe it's a blessing. I hope your life goes smoothly as possible and just want to point out that signing at a younger age will better help them sign later in life and can communicate to you as a toddler, if you choose to sign with your child. Good luck in life

Compare and Contrast the benefits of shopping online rather than Essay

Compare and Contrast the benefits of shopping online rather than shopping in a store - Essay Example Therefore, the storage cost of products are eliminated which will help the online stores in providing better deals to the customers. Better Choice: Compared to a retail store there are ample choices available online. A retail store has limitation of space for storage of products. But there is no such limitation in the case of online store. Therefore, various products will be listed in the online store among which the customers can choose the best of their choice. Product Comparison: This is one feature of an online store that cannot be provided by an actual retail store. Customized product comparisons are available to a customer through online stores. Products can be compared based on price, features, quality and many other product attributes. Product Feedback: On many online stores, the user feedbacks and ratings for a product will be available. A feedback and rating given by a customer is very much helpful for the next customer in the online store. This feature is unavailable in a retail outlet. More time for Shopping: In the case of online shopping, customers can spend more time for shopping compared to that of shopping in a retail outlet. Shopping online is least tiresome. Therefore, there are enough and more time for the customers to make the best product

Business Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 19

Business Law - Assignment Example It becomes a parole because it was an oral agreement made before the final written contract was made. I therefore agree with the court for rejecting Canopy’s evidence. It is against the principles of parole evidence rule which categorically states that there should not be a parole to a written contract. Meaning, evidence made prior to a written contract ca not be accepted for consideration in case of a dispute. It is therefore appropriate for the court to make such a decision it is in compliance with the law. Apart from being oral evidence made prior to the actual contract, it contains evidence which contradicts the written contract itself. Despite Canopy not being a party to the written contract, it went ahead to give this evidence. This is uncalled for and should not be entertained. Instead, the court should go ahead to consider the case filed by Novell Inc to protest against the deductions made by Canopy because it breaches its contract with Caldera

Applying Ethics in Investments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5750 words

Applying Ethics in Investments - Essay Example mmendation 26 4.1 Conclusion 26 4.1 Recommendation 27 Reference 28 Appendix 1 31 Wright Quality Ratings 31 Appendix B: Company Operations Information 32 Mayne Pharma Group Limited 32 Singapore Telecommunications (SGT) 32 Renaissance Uranium (RNU) 33 List of Tables Table 1: Environmental qualification criteria employed for screening of companies for investment 17 Table 2: Evaluation of environmental credentials 19 Table 3: Evaluation of Corporate Governance Credentials 21 Table 4: Evaluation on the basis of contextual factors 22 Table 5: Evaluation on the basis of financial performance and prospects 25 Tables of Figures Figure 1: Adapted form source: Morningstar, 2011. Equity Research Methodology. [Online] Morningstar (January 27, 2011) Available at: http://news.morningstar.com/pdfs/Equity_Research_Methodology_102308.pdf [Accessed 14 September 2011]. 12 Figure 2: Research process adopted for the study 14 Figure 3: Sub-factors considered under factor financial performance and prospects 27 Section 1: Executive Summary This study was undertaken to choose the most worthy company among three companies namely, Mayne Pharma Limited, Singapore Telecommunications, Renaissance Uranium, with the aim to invest $500,000 on a long-term basis. Four main criteria were considered to evaluate the companies’ performance. These were (1) financial performance and prospects, (2) corporate governance performance, (3) environmental protection credentials, (4) Contextual factors (e.g. legal/political issues, global or regional economic pressures, etc.). An extensive review of existing literatures on the subject was undertaken to identify suitable comparison variables on the basis of which the companies were to be evaluated. A total of 24 sub-criteria criteria were listed under the financial... Four main criteria were considered to evaluate the companies’ performance. These were (1) financial performance and prospects, (2) corporate governance performance, (3) environmental protection credentials, (4) Contextual factors (e.g. legal/political issues, global or regional economic pressures, etc.). An extensive review of existing literatures on the subject was undertaken to identify suitable comparison variables on the basis of which the companies were to be evaluated. A total of 24 sub-criteria criteria were listed under the financial performance and prospects; twelve sub-criteria were identified under corporate governance; seven sub-criteria under environmental protection; while the contextual factors consisted four sub-criteria. On the basis of the four criteria and the variables contained in the sub-criteria, a scoring method was developed and the companies’ performance was compared. The findings revealed that Singapore Telecommunications is most worthy compan y. Accordingly, the company was recommended for long-term investment. As Beal et al (2005) brought out in their paper Why do we invest ethically? Over the last two decades, one particular type of behaviour is the desire to invest ethically† (Beal et al., 2005). The authors add that â€Å"based on traditional finance theory and the ethical investment literature, there are three potential reasons why people may invest some or all of their funds ethically: (1) for superior financial returns; (2) for non-wealth returns; and (3) to contribute to social change (Beal et al., 2005). These motivations also inspired this report and prompted that investing should not only be made for shareholders’ wealth maximisation but also for sustainable development.

Pope Jon Paul II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pope Jon Paul II - Essay Example The Pope helped in demolishing the communist regimes. The state had a monopoly over most property which was collectively owned. This monopoly extended to intellectual property as well. Marxism was the only philosophy that one could profess. The church was the first to break free and give the citizens an alternative to the state run concepts. Poland was a case in point. If one wanted to know what was actually transpiring there, one could pick up an underground newspaper. To view paintings by artistes who were not officially commissioned by the government, one had to go to the basement of a church. Even plays would be performed there. While the priests of the church did not involve in any of the above-mentioned activities, they offered the church premises for such activities. The priests of the church were following the example set by Pope John Paul II in his youth during the Nazi days. In the words of the Pope, "Fidelity to roots is always creative, ready to descend into the depths, open to new challenges." (qtd in Applebaum). His emphasis on roots made him refer directly to faith which he proclaimed to people at large. According to him, faith was to be openly and publicly expressed. He used various cultural references in those very countries where the governments restricted culture. John Pauls particular way of expressing his faith -- publicly, openly, and with many cultural and historical references -- was explosive in countries whose regimes tried to control both culture and history along with everything else. As reported in the Washington Post by Applebaum, when the Pope visited Poland in 1979, he told them not to be afraid. Unlike what the regime thought, there was a sea of humanity waiting to greet the Pope. Hence this model could be demonstrated in other communist countries like East Germany and East Germany (‘How the Pope Defeated

Rich & Whillock v. Ashton Development Case Study

Rich & Whillock v. Ashton Development - Case Study Example In a meeting, persons at the helm of affairs of Rich & Whillock, Inc Bob Britton Inc, and the Ashton Development, Inc unanimously decided to blast the rock discovered. Clearly, the contract price of $112,990 did not include blasting costs. However the contract stated â€Å"[a]ny rock encountered will be considered an extra at current rental rates† (Rich & Whillock, Inc Vs. Ashton Development, Inc). Rich and Whillock estimated that an additional $60,000 was required to remove the rock, increasing the total contract price approximately to $172,000. Rich and Whillock informed Britton that the actual cost might be higher than the estimated cost due to the unpredictable nature of the rock. Britton agreed Rich and Whillock to pay the extra costs arising out of the rock work and directed them to go on the with the work. Rich and Whillock proceeded with the rock work and submitted invoices, and received payments at the end of every week. They prepared separate invoices for the regular contract work, and the extra rock work supported by employee time sheets. Although Whillock asked Britton if he needed any clarification regarding any of the billings by the end of April, Britton had no doubts and directed Whillock to continue with the rock work. As described by Gibbs and Hunt (2010), after receiving a total payment of $190,363.50 by 17th June, Rich & Whillock Inc submitted the final invoice amounting an additional $72,286.45. After consulting with Ashton officials, Britton refused to pay the money stating that Ashton Development, Inc was short on funds and had little money left to pay that amount (p.738). Britton had no objections about the work done until he received that final invoice. In addition, Britton had not asked for accounting of charges prior to the receipt of the final invoice. Whillock told Britton that his company would end up in closure unless that final invoice was paid, because Rich & Whillock Inc was a new company. As the project was a huge

Estimation of the value of gravitational acceleration g based on Essay

Estimation of the value of gravitational acceleration g based on measurements from a simple pendulum - Essay Example Although the results obtained deviated slightly from the documented values, various sources of errors were discussed to account for the error noted. It was concluded that prior to accurate measurement of the quantities involved and reduction of reaction time during measurement, a more accurate value for gravitational acceleration can be evaluated Displacement of a pendulum from its equilibrium position results in a restoring force that is due to gravitational pull that maintains it in a swinging mode. The combination of force of gravity and the mass of the pendulum causes it to oscillate constantly about the equilibrium position (Homer & Bowen, 2014). The particular time required to make one complete oscillation is known as the period. Which can also be determined using equation (1) below. Equation 2 above implies that plotting a graph of the square of periodic time T against the length l of the pendulum is a straight line whose gradient is equal to. Using the gradient from the chart, the gravitational acceleration g can be evaluated. The measurement of error in physical quantities involved is important in determining the accuracy of the results obtained. The error is usually taken as the standard deviation of the measurements. Therefore the error in measurement of length can be determined by equation 3 below Pendulums find many applications in the world including the fact that their regular motion are used to regulate pendulum clocks (Homer & Bowen, 2014). Other applications are typical in seismometers, gravimeters, and accelerometers. As part of the hypothesis, the experiment seeks to determine the gravitational acceleration based on hypothesis that there is a relationship between the periodic time and length of the pendulum in determining the gravitational acceleration. In this research it is assumed that the amplitude of displacement for each trial is the same. The classic setup, for studying

The History and Development of the English Language Essay

The History and Development of the English Language - Essay Example He translated many of the French and Latin works into the Middle English opening the horizons of knowledge even for the ordinary reader who could understand neither French nor Latin. It is generally believed that Chaucer wrote in the London dialect of the ME of his time; his writings, were, therefore meant for the Londoners (Freeborn 1998, p. 231). This paper seeks to analyze the linguistic features in Chaucer’s The Franklin’s Tale with special reference to its rhyme, metric form, use of suffixes, spelling, vocabulary change, foreign influences, morphological differences, syntax and other grammatical features. Elaborating on the rhyme and metric form employed by Chaucer Schofield states that â€Å"The Franklin’s Tale is in couplets, not strophes, and has only such interpolations as are regular in Chaucer’s work† (Schofield 2006, P. 182). Each of the couplets in the tale rhymes each other: words such as ‘kinrede- dread’, ‘distresse- worthiness’, ‘obeysaunce- penaunce’, ‘accord-lord’ etc very well show that the poem is written in couplets. One also need to understand that in many cases final (-e) suffixes in these words are not pronounced even though in certain cases they formed a separate syllable. As Freeborn observes, it shows that â€Å"in Chaucer’s day, some final (-e) suffixes were pronounced, and some were not, varying from one dialect area to another as the last of Old English suffixes finally disappeared in pronunciation, and so changed the grammar of the language. Chaucer had a choice which helped him in making his lines of verse flow easily. However, when reading his verse, remember that a final (-e) before a word beginning with a vowel or is elided, and not pronounced†¦.† (Freeborn 1998, p. 239). However, one should keep in mind that this final (-e) contributed to an additional syllable in his metric formation.

Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Media - Essay Example A very interesting article ha been put forth by renowned writer Naomi Rockler Gladen titled ‘Me against the Media’, where Gladen writes about the struggles faced by herself to teach the very subject –advertising. She writes that the age group between 18-34 has become a target market for most products and services and this group may be known as the â€Å"The Age of Acquisition.† This is because it is people between this very age group that fall prey to all kinds of tricks played by the corporations and companies worldwide in order to carry on their advertising and promotion techniques. She provides the example of the movie â€Å"Father of the Bride† where she helps her students understand how the father was against a big and extravagant wedding for his daughter but how that decision according to the other family members was just outright unacceptable. This is because in today’s day and age of consumerism no person from the younger generations wants to compromise on any kind of usage when it comes to products and services that have carved a niche for them in the market. Despite presenting the clip, Naomi’s students failed to understand how consumerism has taken over globally without students and young people understanding that they are simply being used by big companies in the form of walking talking forms of print media for the sole benefit of the companies. Most of the dream and ambitions that the younger generations have today are closely linked with consumerism. They dream of acquiring products and services that have high brand values and a niche market. So then is it the fault of these big companies and multinationals if these people are putting themselves into the trap? (Gladen, Naomi Rockler) The main problem, Naomi writes, is that the happiest moments that these younger generations possess in their lives are not linked with familial or friendly relations and ties – they are linked with consumerism. Younger people fail to

The Reader and Writer Essay Example for Free

The Reader and Writer Essay In the newsletter, ‘Getting our future back on the rails- slowly’, that was received by households in the local area; the writer emphasizes the need for change and promotes the idea of sustainable living through community action. The direct, persistent tone serves to assert the notion that the community would greatly benefit by a shared garden. The proposal contains 3 images of which all support the writer’s philosophy. Commonly, all are directed to the reader through techniques of fear tactics and consistent use of hyperbole. The newsletter aims to persuade readers through tactics of: appealing to sense of security, use of evidence and involvement of readers through inclusive language. The writer begins with the second word ‘our’ to immediately create a sense of belonging. This benevolent attitude is evident throughout the article by the simple repetition of ‘we’, ‘our’, and ‘us’- targeting to appeal to our sense of community. The writer’s aim is to involve the reader directly in the debate by assuming that they agree with the proposal: putting them in a position of not becoming innocent bystanders. It even strategically involves those not knowing there was a situation to begin with and subliminally creating divisions of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ in minds. By repeatedly using the word ‘our’, the writer is positioning the reader to feel included in the sense of duty required of themselves and their fellow residents. The use of inclusive language reinforces the need for solidarity amongst the townspeople in order to achieve the shared desire of harvesting a communal garden. The writer further outlines the duty required of the readers and the possible future harms that could arise from not having a community garden. It suggests that gardens could potentially save lives; teaching the ways of growing food and feeding one another. The writer works on undermining the reader’s sense of security by claiming that the modern time is vulnerable to independence. The technique of appealing to ones sense of security sparks fear thus persuading them in agreeing with the proposal. The key paragraph â€Å" people suddenly understood how vulnerable a society is if we have  forgotten or never learned how to produce our own food† would elicit a response from readers. It plays on their need to feel safe and free from an unexpected attack. The image within the newsletter depicts an androgynous leg shoveling soil. This image is then contrasted to a background of young children innocently staring back. Titles intersect the obscure scene, labeling â€Å" For their sake- GROW YOUR OWN VEGETABLE†. It is quite obvious that the main intention here is to illicit fear. Regardless of its initial use during the Second World War, it seems to have some relevance to this situation (to a degree). These appeals the writer has used are powerful because people obviously value sufficient and continual protection from future attacks that may disrupt their lifestyle. In persuading readers, the writer on several occasions uses evidence as a technique to agree. The evidence was presented as information, facts and statements, which all support the belief that having a community garden would be more economical and beneficial. The image of statistics showing the costing of processed foods ultimately seems objective and accurate. Unarguably these results cannot be disregarded, thus positioning the reader to more likely agree. When presented with statistics it makes the writer seem more â€Å"knowledgeable† of the situation, thus putting more faith in what they’re saying. Throughout the article, the writer makes remarks such as â€Å"hundreds of millions across the globe† and â€Å"adding to environmental damage†. These may not be accurate but do work in the same way as of evidence. Overall the newsletter â€Å"Getting our future back on the rails- slowly â€Å" is an effective piece which would most likely persuade a majority of the community to agree in the establishment of a community garden.

Components Of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Components Of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) occurs in children, adolescents, and adults. OCD is an anxiety disorder characterized by uncontrollable, unwanted thoughts and repetitive, ritualized behaviors (American Psychiatric Association [DSM-IV-TR], 2000). The two main component of OCD are obsession and compulsion. Individuals with obsessions often attempt to ease the stress that the obsessions cause through compulsions (Shih, Belmonte, Zandi, 2004). Types of OCD Obsessions Aggressive/ catastrophic Religious Sexual Contamination Somatic Compulsions Hoarding Counting Confessing/ asking Ordering/arranging Washing In a developmental study conducted by Geller and his colleagues (2001), OCD in childhood and adolescence was male preponderant and associated with a higher frequency of aggression/catastrophe obsessions, hoarding and saving compulsions, multiple obsessions and compulsions, and poor insight compared with adult OCD. Sexual and religious obsessions were selectively more prevalent in adolescents compared with either children or adults. Children with OCD had higher rates of Tourettes disorder and separation anxiety disorder than older age groups, but mood disorders were similarly high in both adolescents and adults with OCD. Adults with OCD also had higher rates of substance use and eating disorders than either children or adolescents. This study indicated that age specific correlates with different types of OCD. DSM Diagnosis Criteria of OCD (DSM-IV-TR, 2000) A. The Person Exhibits Either Obsessions or Compulsions Obsessions are indicated by the following: The person has recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses, or images that are experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and inappropriate and that cause marked anxiety or distress The thoughts, impulses, or images are not simply excessive worries about real-life problems The person attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, impulses, or images or to neutralize them with some other thought or action The person recognizes that the obsessional thoughts, impulses, or images are a product of his or her own mind (not imposed from without as in thought insertion) Compulsions are indicated by the following: The person has repetitive behaviors (eg, hand washing, ordering, checking) or mental acts (eg, praying, counting, repeating words silently) that the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rules that must be applied rigidly The behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing some dreaded event or situation; however, these behaviors or mental acts either are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralize or prevent or are clearly excessive. B. At some point during the course of the disorder, the person has recognized that the obsessions or compulsions are excessive or unreasonable. (Note: this does not apply to children.) C. The obsessions or compulsions cause marked distress, are time consuming (take more than 1 hour a day), or significantly interfere with the persons normal routine, occupational/academic functioning, or usual social activities or relationships. D. If another axis I disorder is present, the content of the obsessions or compulsions is not restricted to it (e.g., preoccupation with drugs in the presence of a substance abuse disorder). E. The disturbance is not due to the direct physiologic effects of a substance (e.g., drug abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition. Sign and Symptoms of OCD Most people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) have both obsessions and compulsions, but some people experience just one or the other (Help Guide, 2010). Common obsessive thoughts in OCD include (Help Guide, 2010): Fear of being contaminated by germs or dirt or contaminating others. Fear of causing harm to yourself or others. Intrusive sexually explicit or violent thoughts and images. Excessive focus on religious or moral ideas. Fear of losing or not having things you might need. Order and symmetry: the idea that everything must line up just right. Superstitions; excessive attention to something considered lucky or unlucky. Common compulsive behaviors in OCD include (Help Guide, 2010): Excessive double-checking of things, such as locks, appliances, and switches. Repeatedly checking in on loved ones to make sure theyre safe. Counting, tapping, repeating certain words, or doing other senseless things to reduce anxiety. Spending a lot of time washing or cleaning. Ordering, evening out, or arranging things just so. Praying excessively or engaging in rituals triggered by religious fear. Accumulating junk such as old newspapers, magazines, and empty food containers, or other things you dont have a use for. ETIOLOGY Biological Aspects of OCD Family and twin studies Family studies have demonstrated an increased prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the first degree relatives of patients as compared to controls (Hettema, Neale, Kendler, as cited inTaberner et al., 2009). Studies of OCD patients and their families have established a 10% prevalence of OCD in first degree relatives (Brynes, 2009). One American study (as cited in Anxiety Care, 2011) suggested that up to 30% of teenagers with OCD had a member of the immediate family with the problem or with obsessive symptoms. However, a two years study carried out by Black (2003, as cited in Waite Williams, 2009) demonstrated that although the children of parents with OCD were likely to go on to develop an emotional disorder, it was not particularly likely to be OCD. In studies of twins, there is a 63% concordance rate for OCD in identical twins (Brynes, 2009). Twin studies suggested a higher concordance rate in monozygotic as compared to dizygotic twins (Samuels Nestadt, 1997; Eley, Bolto n, OConnor, Perrin, Smith, Plomin, 2003). Because MZ twins share 100% of their genes and DZ twins share 50% of their genes on average, the concordance rate for a genetically influenced disorder is expected to be higher for MZ twins than for DZ twins (Shih, Belmonte, Zandi, 2004). Brain structure and chemistry Positron emission tomography (PET) studies measuring resting glucose metabolism have reported hyperactivity in the inferior frontal and anterior cingulate cortices, striatum, and thalamus in patients with OCD (Saxena et al., as cited in Busatto et al., 2001).Researcher believed that OCD may be developed by the abnormal metabolic activity in the orbitofrontal cortes, the anterior cingulate, and the caudate nucleus (Dejdar, 2002). The interaction between these different parts is called a cortico-basal ganglia network (Dejdar, 2002). Dejdar described that these cortico-basal ganglia interactions make up a neural system that is crucial in the acquisition of habits and also establishing a fixed routine of performing those habits, which in turn connected to the typical behaviors of OCD where people maintain certain obsessive habits and continue to perform those habits. Study by Lewin, Storch, Adkins, Murphy, Geffken (2005) supported the neurochemical etiology involving a functional disturbance in the frontal-limbic-basal ganglia system as well as thalamic and cortical neurostructural abnormalities. It is hypothesized that if cortical regions are dysfunctional in patients with OCD, then conscious mechanisms must be used to accomplish what would occur automatically in an unimpaired brain (Sturm, 2008). As a result, inappropriate or obsessive thoughts repeatedly intrude and conscious thought processes suppress them, facilitated by accompanying ritualistic behaviors (Neel, Stevens, Stewart, as cited in Sturm, 2008). There is a strong connection between basal ganglia and OCD. Several studies have implicated that basal ganglia is active during the learning or execution of sequential behavior (Brown, 1997; Graybiel, 1998). Graybiel (1998) explained that the chunking functions of the basal ganglia helps people to focus. Chunking refers to the organization of information into specific associated groups (Dolan DNA learning center, n.d.). This happened when the dopamine released in the basal ganglia system communicates with the brain areas in the prefrontal cortex to allow people to pay attention to critical tasks, ignoring distracting information (Dolan DNA learning center, n.d.). In an experiment by Graybiel, she hypothesized that the basal ganglia system helps the cortex to chunk learning into habits and routines to help the brain quickly access stored information. The experiment of Graybiel was done on training the rats on maze tasks and records the firing groups of neurons in the striatum as the r ats learn, forget, and then relearn the task. When the rats get used to the maze, lots of cells in motor striatum tend to fire at the beginning and the end of the run instead of the whole thing. This happened because the basal ganglia has chunked the behavior. The symptoms of OCD included repetitive, intrusive thoughts and compulsions which lead to ritualistic behaviors such as washing, counting and checking. These behaviors according to Graybiel involved sequential acts and they are performed as chunks, unitized and driven by the extraordinary imperative of urges and compulsions that the patient recognizes as abnormal and out of the persons control. As the result, OCD patients showed over focused attention to irrelevant stimuli. In OCD patients, an abnormal activation of the striatum has been observed. A clearer view is illustrated by a charity organization, Anxiety Care (2011). The organization explained that the thalamus is involved in sensory perception processes and caudate nucleus, a component within basal ganglia work to sort sensory information and filter thoughts. When these messages are being misinterpreted or misfiring, which mean that the normal electrical activity in the brain is being disrupted by the overactive electrical dischargers, it will causes the problem of communication between nerve cells. This will affect and confused the thinking part of the brain to respond chemically to a threat perceived by the primitive part of the brain as if the danger is real. In effect, the caudate nucleus is letting unnecessary thoughts and impulses through to the cortex where the thoughts and emotions combine; and an over active cingulate nucleus at the brains centre, which helps shift attention from one th ought or behavior to another, becomes over active and gets stuck on certain behaviors, thoughts or ideas. The cingulate is that part of the brain which tells the OCD sufferer that something terrible will happen if the compulsions are not carried out (Anxiety Care, 2011). Besides that, some researchers have suggested that OCD results from the imbalance of the neurotransmitter in the brain which is known as serotonin (Pauls, Mundo, Kennedy, 2002). A study by Stengler-Wenzke, Muller, Angermeyer, Sabri and Hesse (2004) revealed that there is a significant reduction of serotonin transporter availability in the midbrain and upper brainstem in OCD patients. The reduction of serotonin transporter availability may reflect a reduced number of serotonergic neurons that may result in low level of serotonin. Serotonin is responsible for transporting impulses to and away from the nerves (Dejdar, 2006). The physiological activity of serotonin starts from the brainstem in groups of brain cells called raphe nucleus (Function of Serotonin, 2009). Serotonin brain cells then spread to various regions of the central nervous system by branching out throughout the brain(Function of Serotonin, 2009). In a case reported by Cohen, Angladette, Benoit, and Pierrot-Deseilligny (1999), a 59-year-old man developed obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms after his head injury. The magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scans showed a small contusion in the right orbitofrontal region. In the similar case, the single-photon emission CT (SPECT) showed greatly reduced blood flow in the orbitofrontal region of the 59-year-old man with OCD (Cohen et al., 1999). A study by Busatto et al. (2001) supported the findings as their research found reduced right cerebral blood flow in the right orbitofrontal cortex in OCD patients as compared with the healthy control group. Paulmann, Seifert, and Kotz (2009) explained that the orbitofrontal cortex is linked to a variety of cognitive and emotional functions. Gray, Braver, and Raichle (as cited in Bracha Brown, 2009) mentioned that emotion and cognition conjointly and equally contribute to the control of thought and behavior. Additionally, Pessoa (as cit ed in Bracha Brown, 2009) added that emotions and cognition not only strongly interact in the brain, but they are often integrated so that they jointly contribute to behavior. Hence, impairment of orbitofrontal cortex contributed to the intrusive thoughts and bizarre behavior of OCD patients (Swinson, Antony, Rachman, Richter, 1998).In particular, lesions of the human orbitofrontal cortex lead to large-scale changes in social and emotional behavior (Paulmann, Seifert, and Kotz, 2009). For example, patients with orbitofrontal lesions are reported to suffer from deficits in affective decision-making (Hornak, as cited in Paulmann, Seifert, and Kotz, 2009). Consistently, Swinson and his colleagues (1998) stated that OCD patients have difficulties in decision making. Psychological Aspects of OCD According to Salkovskis, Shafran, Rachman, and Freeston (1999), there are five mechanisms for the development of inflated responsibility which are critical for the development of OCD. Inflated responsibility refers to an excessive sense of personal responsibility related to unwanted or upsetting thoughts (Abramowitz, Deacon, Woods, Tolin, 2004). The first mechanism is being given too much of responsibility. A child or adolescent, who assumed responsibility during early age due to incompetent parenting, might believe that they are responsible for the negative consequences over which they have little or no control. This is related to the parental communications, where the child is scapegoated for negative occurrences whether or not they are in fact responsible. Through this type of upbringing, Salkovskis et al. stated that the child will develop and accept a wide sense of responsibility and are inclined to translate it into a high degree of conscientiousness, marked by a dedication to work and an acute sense of social obligations. The second mechanism in influencing a person to be OCD is the exposure to rigid or extreme codes of conduct. Strict behavioral codes being instilled by schools, authorities or religion will lead to the development and the reinforcement of attitudes about responsibility. In the study by Abramowitz et al., they found evidence that religion and other cultural influences affect the presentation of OCD symptoms. Rasmussin and Tsuang (as cited in Abramowitz et al., 2004) observed that strictly religious patients often had religious themes to their obsessional thoughts and compulsive rituals. An early study by Khanna and Channabasavanna (as cited in Abramowitz et al., 2004) noted a large portion of symptoms related to contamination and washing among Hindus with OCD, and commented that Indian culture emphasizes on the issues of purity and cleanliness. The third mechanism for the development of inflated responsibility is being given too little responsibility. The responsibility is withheld from the child by the parents. Worries are prominent in the family system and the parents are likely to be excessively anxious and fearful themselves, they will be overprotected toward their child. This will thus convey a sense that danger is around the corner to the child. When growing up, the child will have difficulty in leaving home and being independent; he or she is unprepared to cope with the dangers that the child believe to have in the world outside. Salkovskis et al. further mentioned that leaving home is usually marked by the emergence of OCD symptoms in the child. The lack of preparation to deal with the world outside will frighten the child and leads to the development of anxiousness in the child. The fourth route to the development of an inflated sense of responsibility is the sudden critical incidents that happened where a persons action or inaction contributed to serious misfortune. An example illustrated by Salkocskis et al. on a young doctor who gave the wrong prescription to the patients. Although it did not have any adverse effects on the patient, the young doctor was reprimanded intensely by his senior supervisor. Since then, he developed repetitive checking on the prescription and spent an inordinate amount of time in checking the details of each prescription. Another factor that contributed to the exaggerated sense of responsibility occurred from an incident that is in fact coincidental but the person erroneously assumed that their thoughts, actions or inactions contributed to a serious misfortune. This happened though the learning experiences, for example, when a child angrily wishes an adult dead; soon afterwards the adult, by unfortunate coincidence, actually dies (Salkocskis et al., 1999). The child will think that it is his fault and he has caused the death but actually it was just a coincidence. Salkocskis et al. described that people who are prone to the cognitive bias of thought-action fusion are the ones who are most likely to experience inflations of responsibility and thus contribute to the origins of OCD. PHYSIOLOGICAL TREATMENT Medication Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor The pathogenesis of OCD has been linked to abnormal serotonin levels. Drugs which increase levels of serotonin in the brain have been shown to improve symptoms of OCD. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most commonly prescribed antidepressants to deal with OCD (Taylor, 2009). SSRIs included citalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine and sertraline (Taylor, 2009). Taylor in his study discussed that SSRIs ease the anxious feeling of OCD patients by affecting the neurotransmitters of the brain that used to communicate between brain cells. SSRIs block the reuptake or re-absorption of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. Changing the balance of serotonin seems to help brain cells send and receive chemical messages, which in turn boosts patients mood. Taylor explained that SSRIs are called selective because they seem to primarily affect serotonin, not other neurotransmitters. Side effects of SSRIs included nausea, headaches and insomnia (Taylor, 2009). In evaluating the safety and effectiveness of sertraline in children and adolescents, Cook et al. (2001) ran a study in United States. Their research indicated that long-term sertraline treatment was well tolerated and effective in the treatment of childhood and adolescent OCD. In consistent with the result of sertraline, studies has showed that fluoxetine, citalopram and fluvoxamine were well tolerate and effective in treating children and adolescent with OCD (Liebowitz et al., 2002; Riddle et al., 2001). Nonetheless, six adverse events occurred significantly more frequently in fluoxetine patients who experienced palpitations, weight loss, drowsiness, tremors, nightmares, and muscle aches (Riddle et al., 2001). Escitalopram, another type of SSRI has been examined by researchers in Malaysia in treating OCD patients (Hatim et al., 2008). The research reviewed that the risk of relapse for those treated with placebo appeared to be four times that of those treated with escitalopram. Moreover, the study suggested that escitalopram is well tolerated in Malaysian patients with OCD. No serious adverse event was reported throughout the study. A few milder side effects have been reported by the patients, such as dizziness, hypertension, delayed ejaculation, and throat tightness. The sample of the study, however, may be too small to yield broad generalizations. Serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor Serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) such as venlafaxine has been used to manage OCD. Researchers found that venlafaxine may be beneficial to individuals with OCD, including those who have not responded to prior SSRI trials (Hollander, Friedberg, Wasserman, Allen, Birnbaum, Koran, 2003SNRI works by inhibiting the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine (Donaldson, 2010). As low serotonin is associated with OCD, SNRI function to increase the amount of two neurotransmitters, serotonin and norepinephrine, and thus enhance the neuronal activity of the brain. The side effects of SNRI included nausea, restlessness, sexual dysfunctions, insomnia, and increased blood pressure (Bandelow, 2008). Tricyclic antidepressants One of the effective tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) that have been using to treat OCD is clomipramine. It was one of the first anti-obsession drugs prescribed in the 1960s, but is less prescribed now due to their unpleasant side effects (Goodman, 2011). The side effects of this drug included dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention, sexual dysfunction, weight gain, seizures, and cardiac side effects (Bandelow, 2008). Bandelow added that TCAs should be avoided in patients who are considered to be at risk of suicide, due to their potential cardiac and central nervous system toxicity after overdose. In general, the side effects of TCAs are more adverse than SSRIs. Therefore, it is usually recommended when the treatment with SSRIs have failed (Taylor, 2009). Neurosurgical treatment More than 10% of OCD patients remain incapacitated despite rigorously involving in medication trials and intensive behavior therapy (Kim et al., 2003). Several neurosurgical procedures have been used in OCD for treating such refractory patients. Cingulotomy is among the neurosurgical methods to deal with OCD. Cingulotomy defined by Carlson (2008) as the surgical destruction of the cingulum bundle, which connects the prefrontal cortex with the limbic system; helps to reduce intense anxiety and the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (p. 489). Anterior cingulotomy targets the anterior cingulate cortex and the fibers of the cingulum has been recently reported as being effective and safe (Dougherty, as cited in Kim et al., 2003). Study by Kim et al. (2003) aimed to to investigate OCD symptom improvements and to evaluate any cognitive changes and adverse effects after cingulotomy. Their study found no evidence of cognitive dysfunction including intelligence, memory and executive fun ction after cingulotomy compared with preoperative performances. In addition, seizure, urinary problems, chronic pain and suicide were not reported and other adverse effects, such as headache, insomnia and weight changes did not continue for more than 3 months. Taken together, they suggested that cingulotomy could be safe in terms of cognitive and other side-effects. Furthermore, deep brain stimulation (DBS), a procedure in which surgically implanted electrodes stimulate localized brain structures, has also been reported to be effective in patients with OCD when the anterior limb of internal capsule was targeted (Nuttin et al., as cited in Cannistraro et al., 2007). Deep brain stimulation surgery involves the placement of tiny implantable electrodes into abnormally functioning areas of the brain through burr holes in the skull; then a neurostimulator, which is commonly implanted near the collarbone; an insulated wire that connects the electrode to the neurostimulator (Brown University, 2003). The electrodes emit pulses of electrical stimulation to block abnormal brain activity that can cause obsessions, moods, and anxieties associated with psychiatric disorders (Brown University, 2003). A study conducted by Gabriels, Cosyns, Nuttin, Demeulemeester, Gybels (2003) concluded that deep brain stimulation may have important therapeutic benefits on psy chopathology in OCD and no harmful side-effects were detected during follow-up up to 33 months (see Appendix A, for case study). However, Greenberg, Rauch, and Haber (2010) stated that hemorrhages on device insertion may have long-lasting or permanent consequences, although relatively rare. Infection represents another significant risk (Greenberg et al., 2010). On the other hand, Greenberg and his colleagues added that the great appeal of DBS in comparison with lesions is that it permits focal, adjustable, and reversible modulation of the brain. Specifically, various combinations of electrodes can be activated, at adjustable polarity, intensity, and frequency; DBS thus permits flexible neuromodulation. The great clinical advantage of this is that parameters can be optimized for individual patients. In cases in which no beneficial settings can be identified despite extensive efforts, the electrodes can be inactivated, and the devices may be removed (Greenberg et al., 2010). DISCUSSION CONCLUSION Overdose TCAs have been revealed to be lethal in overdose (Bandelow, 2008). These drugs should be avoided in patients who are considered to be at risk of suicide, due to their potential cardiac and central nervous system toxicity after overdose (Bandelow, 2008). Although the benefit of SSRI and SNRI is that they are relatively safe in overdose (Bandelow, 2008), the issues of associating SNRI with other substances need to be highlighted. During 2010, Donaldson revealed that overdose with SNRIs has commonly occurred in combination with alcohol and/or other drugs. The adverse event of combining alcohol with SNRI medication include electrocardiogram changes, sinus and ventricular tachycardia, bradycardia, hypotension (low blood pressure), altered level of consciousness (from somnolence to coma), rhabdomyolysis, seizures, vertigo, liver necrosis, and death have been reported. Besides that, Donaldson emphasized that SNRI medications should not be taken by patients also taking monoamine oxidase inhi bitors (MAOIs). This can lead to increased serotonin levels and cause serotonin syndrome which is a rare, but serious and potentially life-threatening condition unfortunately often mistaken for a viral illness, anxiety, neurological disorder or worsening psychiatric condition). Therefore, it is vital to address the adverse events of drug overdose and the combination with other substances. Relapse Relapse and remission is common in OCD and many patients will never be free of the disease (Taylor, 2009). Earlier study in 1973 by Capstick (as cited in Ravizza, 1998) stated that if the SSRI is withdrawn or reduced too quickly, the patient is able to relate the time of onset of the recurrence of the obsessions, usually 36 to 48 hours after the former dose. In a follow-up study of 15 patients with OCD who responded to clomipramine, Thoren et al. (as cited in Ravizza, 1998) reported that 6 patients who had stopped taking the drug had a recurrence of their symptoms within a few weeks of discontinuation. A research group by Ravizza et al., 1996, the group completed a 2-year, open-label follow-up study of 130 patients with OCD who had previously responded to 6 months treatment with clomipramine, fluoxetine or fluvoxamine. At the end of the 2 years of follow-up, the relapse rate was 77 to 85% among those patients who discontinued pharmacotherapy. Implication Most research related to the physiological treatment has been studied for not more than five years. Therefore, the effects of long term treatment have yet to be observed. However, when the discontinuation of treatment is discussed, researchers indicated several relapse problems and adverse events. A study stated that response to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may be influenced by body weight, age, sex, and genetic makeup, and therefore can vary between individuals of different ethnic populations (Hatim et al., 2008). Malaysia as a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic country, the use of treatment in patient with OCD should be wise and well considered. The lack of physiological treatment in Malaysia is the major limitation for the implication of treatment toward Malaysian. On the issue of unresponsive to treatment, researcher found the benefits of switching between venlafaxine and paroxetine for OCD. In 2004, the Brown University reported that 56% of patients who were not responding to venlafaxine benefited from a switch to paroxetine; 19% of patients who were not responding to paroxetine benefited from a switch to venlafaxine.Despite the evidence that clomipramine and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are effective in the pharmacology management of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), between 40% and 60% of the patients suffering from it show only a partial or no symptom improvement (Marazziti et al., 2008). Therefore, Marazziti and his group conducted a research to examine the effectiveness of combined treatment by associating clomipramine and citalopram in the treatment of OCD. The study found that combination treatment is effective and well-tolerated for OCD patients, and much more effective than treating patients with single drug, su ch as SSRI or TCA. In prescribing medication for the OCD patients in Malaysia, the doctor should inform the possible side effects of the medication to the patients. The adverse events that would occur in combination of substances should be stressed and patients should be education on the appropriate dosage and time to consume the medication. Limitations on the use of medications include unwillingness of approximately 25% of OCD patients to take medications which they view, globally, as a form of contamination (Greist, 1998); side effects that interfere with comfortable use of medications; and continuing costs of medications that are necessary to prevent relapse associated with discontinuation. Besides physiological treatment, psychotherapy has been recommended to deal with OCD. The consensus guidelines produced by the American Psychiatric Association (2000) suggested that cognitive, behavioral therapy (CBT) was the first choice treatment for children and young people. Waite and Williams (2009) mentioned that CBT alone or in combination with medication appears to be more effective and less likely to lead to relapse. More recently, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2011) described a stepped care model beginning with self-help materials for mild cases through CBT, medication and finally combined treatments. The Malaysian Psychiatric Association reviewed a research being done by Saxena et al. (2009) indicated the effectiveness of CBT on brain glucose metabolism in OCD. They discovered significant changes in brain activity solely as the result of four weeks of intensive cognitive-behavioral therapy in ten OCD patients. Reduction of thalamic activity, decrea ses in glucose metabolism has been observed after the intervention. However, the study also showed a significant increase in activity in an area of the brain called the right dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, a region involved in reappraisal and suppression of negative emotions. The major constraints on the use of CBT include patient unwillingness to invest the time and energy. This may be due to patients fear that their anxiety will be too great when they expose themselves to their triggers. As the conclusion, there are several causes of OCD which involved both biological and psychological aspects. In introduc

Play in Early Childhood | Theories

Play in Early Childhood | Theories Nature and role of play in early childhood. Not only play therapists, early interventionists, social workers or sociocultural researchers like for example Gà ¶ncà ¼ (1999) have focused in the last four decades on child play but also all major developmental theorists like Piaget, (1962), Vygotksy, (1976), Bruner (1972) or Erikson, (1977). Today, therefore the essential role that play possesses in the development of an infant during childhood has been acknowledged by most theorists and developmental psychologists strive to help mentally ill children with different play therapy techniques. Despite the fact that there is neither a satisfactory definition of play nor consent about its purpose, as maintained by Bundy (2001), one can describe and define children’s play behaviour as pleasurable, personally directed, intrinsically motivated and voluntary activities which are conducted in a safe, spontaneous, goalless context (Hughes, 2001) and which involve â€Å"much repetition and variation as the child explores the range of possibilities of behaviour† (Butterworth Harris, 1998, p.140) in contents and intents where the child possess a sense of control. Child play is both performed in solitary or in social groups and it is always more intrinsically then extrinsically motivated even when children are eagerly and seriously engaged in play activities which are rule governed. It also may to serve to explore inanimate objects or to explore human relationships and social roles (see Butterworth Harris, 1998). Thus, child play is not only a straightforward term for simple actions but includes manifold activities with manifold purposes. It also has many diverse facets as it for, instance, represents reality in as-if or what-if term (symbolic nature of play) while at the same time connecting or linking different experiences (meaningful nature of play). As it includes so many diverse aspects many definitions have arose in the past with each definition providing a different understanding and interpretation of children’s play. In general, the play theories are divided into classical theories of play (e.g. Hall’s Recapitulation Theory, 1920; Groos’ Pre-Exercise Theory, 1984) and modern theories of play (Mellou, 1994). Classical theories of play originated in the nineteenth century and tried to explain the existence and purpose of play (Mellou, 1994). However, this brief paper intends to investigate and discuss the nature and role of play in early childhood with reference to theories of development and will focus on contemporary theories (e.g. Psychoanalytic theory, Cognitive theories) which were mainly devised after the 1920s and which try to explain the role of play in child development (Saracho and Spodek, 1995). Psychoanalytic Theory Freud (1938) and colleagues developed the Psychoanalytic theory of play which arose through therapies which examined repressed memories of patients. In this sense, Freud concluded that child play is a way of replacing negative feelings and emotions in a cathartic way with positive emotions. Thus, accordingly, children who do not play sufficiently will remain traumatized and possess destructively negative feelings throughout the rest of their lives. Freud (1938) believed that playing represents not only a catalyst of negative feelings but serves also as a facilitator for grasping and comprehending unpleasant and agonizing experiences and represents, additionally, a tool for children to express their feelings and emotions (Wehman and Abramson, 1976). Psychotherapists like Takhvar (1988) or Erikson (1963) have modified and altered Freud’s initial theory by relating ego processes, fear, anxiety, and wish fulfillment to play activities in children. Conflict solving and the dramatisation of both past, present and future were, additionally, identified by Erikson (1950) as the main characteristics of play and he, consequently, transformed Freud’s psychosexual development stages into psychosocially relevant stages. Peller (1952) concluded that adult roles are imitated in children’s fantasy play which, in turn, provides children with a sense of mastery that empowers them to deal with difficult real life situations an d experiences. It was Murphy (1962) who concluded that in addition to all the mentioned benefits of child play, the acting out elements of play enable children not only to understand negative experiences from the past but allow for processing of positive or everyday experiences (see Saracho Spodek, 1995). Play Therapy Acting out is one of the pivotal elements of play therapy which can be regarded as an offspring of these psychoanalytic ideas (Axline, 1974). Play therapy has been predominantly employed in children with emotional difficulties and distortions and intends to minimise and diminish children’s mainly destructive emotions (e.g. anxiety, fear, insecurity) through acting out these emotions. Observation of a child during guided play situations provides the therapists with insights about the emotional problems and difficulties faced by the child and enables the therapists to explore ways for reestablishing the child’s security and mastery of self, situation and sentiments. Cognitive Theories From Piaget to Vygotski The most influential figures for cognitive theories are Piaget (1962) and Vygotsky (1978) who both attempted to comprehend the precise relationship between cognitive developments and play behaviour in a child. In order to understand Piaget’s ideas on child play one has to be first acquainted with his cognitive development theory in which assimilation and accommodation are the two most important and prevailing factors. Assimilation involves the process of a child assimilating and integrating external information from the outside world into pre-existent mental structures while the ultimate goal is to obtain a state of equilibrium where the cognitive balance is maintained. This is reached by children continuously adapting and accommodating their imperfect and imbalanced mental structures in order to improve their reception of real world information. This explains partly why children enjoy playing as they do not need to adapt their cognitive schemes to the world anymore when they play but rather the world has to accommodate to the universe which they have created according to their own simple rules. Playing can be consequently seen as opposed by imitating where in contrast assimilation predominates over accommodation.   Piaget (1962) has, in total, identified three stages of play and has described the sensorimotor stage as the first followed by the symbolic and games with rules stages. A child experiences the different stages in a sequential order while every single stage includes different types of play (see Stagnitti, 2004). According to Piaget (1964) children indulge more in physical activities (e.g. play fighting) in the sensorimotor stage which often involve objects but since playing with objects is too practical as to be concerned for the symbolic stage it solely occurs in the first stage of play development. The second stage evolves when children are approximately two years old and involves symbolic or making-believe play. One object representing another is a characteristic of symbolic play and represents a qualitatively new form of behaviour which is a pivotal evidence for the transition from early childhood to a new stage. Symbolic processes also enter into the playful exploration of social roles, as when children play at being bus drivers, nurses, teachers, or mothers and fathers. Unlike the simple practice of physical skills, symbolic play therefore involves imaginary reality. According to Baldwin (1905; in Butterworth and Harris, 1998), imagination is the general power of having mental images. Baldwin distinguished reconstructive imagination (as when one imagines a man on a horse from previous experience) from compounded imagination (as when one imagines a centaur from the previously separate memories of a man and a horse). Children enter the â€Å"games with rules† stage when they are about seven years old and this end stage of child play is complementary to Piaget’s concrete operational stage of development.   In this stage, children become more and more interested in having social interactions while playing (e.g. chess, cards), according to Piaget (1968), and choose writing down fictional stories instead of dramatic play. Physical or symbolic games are still played throughout one’s life although one chooses predominantly to play games which have tangible rules and which also satisfy the need in everyone to socialise and which come as close as possible to reality (see Goldman, 1998). Nevertheless, referring to Lloyd and Howe (2003) one of today’s principal and chief theoretical debates in the study of play is whether solitary play represents either an advanced or immature type of play. As a matter of fact, Piaget’s (1968) view that the frequency of solitary play does significantly decline with age is not supported anymore. Moore and colleagues (1974) have rather discovered that solitary play persists throughout different stages and becomes even more mentally mature with age In a similar vein, Rubin and collaborators (1983) reported that children below 5 years of age were yet not able to engage themselves in sophisticated solitary games as much as 5-year-olds were and while children going to kindergarten were found to prefer solitary-constructive play, preschoolers play observably more functional solitary games. Consequently, in contrast to what has been assumed by Piaget (1968) one can impossible one’s social maturity by purely looking at the amount of social interaction and neglecting relevant cognitive aspects (Lloyd and Howe, 2003, Stagnitti and Unsworth, 2000). In sum, Piaget (1968) believed that changes in cognitive development underlie changes in forms of play with only mirroring the achieved cognitive developmental stage but without play helping to lead to more mature cognitive developmental stages. He was recently criticised by Elkonin (2005) as he did not offer any details about the essential child-adult interactions during his experiements but completely omitted them. Piaget’s (1968) viewpoint stands in stark contrast to Vygotsky (1976) who strongly believed that play facilitates and accelerates cognitive development in children. Vygotski’s approach was not only dissimilar to that of Piaget but also to those of Freud as he focused on normal problems in children’s development whereas Freud took more the extreme cases of traumatised children into consideration. His ideas were, nevertheless, in accordance with many other well-known theorists like for instance Bruner (1972, 1999) or Russ (1995) who like him saw sociodramatic play which is discovered by 2-year-oldsas essential for emotional, cognitive and emotional development. In his eyes, sociodramatic play serves as a tool to imitate the adults and thus enabled children to experience situations and activities for which they were actually too immature in order to experience them in real life situations. â€Å"In play the child functions above his average age, above his usual eve ryday behaviour, in play he is head high above himself† (Vygotsky, 1976, p.552). Similarly, in sociodramatically play situations objects can be better defined by children and social norms are more successfully internalised and behaviour can be steadily accommodated according to these norms. An existing imaginary situation and rules are the two factors that distinguish this self-regulatory play from other early childhood behaviour (see Elias and Berk, 2001). The imaginary situation includes children acquiring the skill to make a distinction between cognitive mind and physical action from external stimuli. As a consequence, children control external stimuli and objects in play situations as they voluntarily determine the significance and identity of the situations and stimuli. The child, for example, decides independently whether a stick represents a telephone, a sparrow, a snake or anything else which he or she uses in make-believe situations. This independent power to select and create one’s own universe above the existing reality transforms impulsive actions of a child into self-regulation (Vygotsky, 1978). According to Elias and Berk (2002) with increased age the children’s imagination becomes stronger and stronger and the more they grow up the less they need an object to be as similar as possible to the real world in play situations and thus they can correspond in more self-regulatory ways with both the real and fantasy world. The obeying of rules during play is congruent with the child’s desire to adapt to the social environment which demands acting alongside socially accepted and internalised norms and values. Hence, Vygotsky (1978) concluded that the adherence to rules during play is a central catalyst of satisfaction which children gain from playing. In sum, one conclude that sociodramatic play provides children with the â€Å"greatest self-control† possible (Vygotski, 1978, p. 99) as it demands from children to steadily fight against prompt and incarnated impulses while stressing â€Å"social rules and coordination of goals and behaviour with those of others† (Elias and Berk, 2002, p. 218). Many researchers have attempted to test Vygotsky’s (1978) sociadramatic play theory. The results of Elias and Berk’s (2001) study, for instance, in which they investigated complex sociodramatic play (CSD), solitary dramatic play, and dramatic play in preschool children, demonstrated that those infants are benefiting significantly from CSD play who are most in need of improving their self-regulatory abilities. This finding was congruent to Vygotsky’s claim that self-restraint is very strongly related to sociodramatic play and that playing children constantly resist present impulses in order to adhere social norms that exists in the make-believe context. Kraft and Berk (1998) offered more support for this theory in revealing that infants try to control their behaviour to act according to their thoughts and mental images as CSD was positively correlated to the utilisation of self-guiding private speech. In sum, one can say that today Vygotsky’s notions about play in early childhood have received significantly more support than Piaget’s ideas. However these are by far not the only influential figures in developmental psychology and many theorists hypothesis about child play had to be left out due to the brief nature of this paper (Gà ¶ncà ¼, 1999). Another major idea of Vygotski (1978) which had great influence on child play research concerns the so-called zone of proximal development (ZND) which can be described as the difference between what a child can achieve with and without the help of parents (adults or peer groups). Vygotski viewed the adults as facilitating and potentialising opportunites for the child to learn quicker and more effective in play situations as infants’ knowledge evolves much better through experience of parents leading and directing the child towards more ideal and mature solutions to problems (see Butterworth and Harris, 1998). However cognitive development is limited to a limited time span in one’s life which falls precisely into the ZND. This theory has been very influential in the language acquisition research. As children interact and play with peers particular models of expression, explanation and communication are developed. This generated language use is regarded by many (e.g. Good man and Goodman, 1990, Tharp and Gallimore, 1988) as the foundation for literacy. Jerome Bruner (1973, 1999) basically agrees with this notion that cognitive development is highly related to the systematic social interaction between a child and a parent, peer or teacher. Nevertheless, Bruners theory of cognitive development can be more linked to Piaget’s theory. Bruners postulated the idea that children evolve through different modes of represention in their intellectual development. He introduced three modes of representing understanding, namely, enactive, iconic and symbolic. The iconic representation stage involves using images, pictures or photos that encapsulate or outline action to represent knowledge while the more primitive enactive mode involves representing knowledge solely through physical actions and thus is very compatible to Piaget’s sensorimotor stage. The symbolic mode, however, includes using, for example, symbolic or pretend play for representing cognitive advancement. Bruner’s theories have been very influential in child pla y and music instructing sessions and represent a conclusive bridge between Piaget and Vygotski’s theories (Atterbury and Richardson, 1995). References Atterbury, B. W., Richardson, C. P. (1995). The experience of teaching general music. New York: McGraw-Hill. Axline, V.M. (1947). Play Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Baldwin, J.M. (1905). Dictionary of philosophy and psychology. London: Macmillan. Bruner, J.S. (1972). Nature and Uses of Immaturity. American Psychologist, 8, 687–708. Bruner, J. S. (1973). The growth of representation processes in childhood. In J. Anlin (Ed.), Beyond the information given: Studies in the psychology of knowing (pp. 313-324). New York: Norton. Bruner, J. (1999) Folk Pedagogies. In J. Leach and B. Moon (eds) Learners and Pedagogy. London: Paul Chapman. Bundy, A. (2001). Measuring play performance. In: M. Law, D. Baum W. Dunn (eds) Measuring occupational performance supporting best practice in occupational therapy. Thorofare, NJ: Slack Inc. p. 89–102 Butterworth, George and Harris, Margareth (1998). Principles of developmental psychology. Hove: Psychology Press. Elias, Cynthia L. and Berk, Laura (2002). Self-regulation in young children: Is there a role for sociodramatic play? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 17, 216-238. Elkonin, D.B. (2005). Theories of play. Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, 43(2), 3–89. Erikson, E. H. (1985). Play and actuality. In: J. S. Bruner et al.   (eds) Play: its role in development and evolution. New York, NY: Penguin Books. p.668-704 Freud, S. (1938). The basic writings of Sigmund Freud, New York: Modern Library. Freud, S. (1961). Beyond the pleasure principle. New York, NY: Norton. Goldman, L. (1998). Child’s play: myth, mimesis, and make-believe. Oxford: Berg. Gà ¶ncà ¼, A. (1999). Children’s engagement in the world: sociocultural perspectives. New York: Cambridge University Press. Goodman, Y.M. and Goodman, K.S. (1990) Vygotsky in a whole language perspective.In L. Moll (Ed.) Vygotsky and Education: instructional implications and applications ofsociohistorical psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Groos, K. (1916), The Play of Animals. Zeitschrift Psychologie, 133. Groos, K. (1985). The play of animals: Play and instinct. In: J. S. Brunner, A. Jolly K. Sylva (eds) Play: its role in development and evolution. New York, NY: Penguin Books. p.68–83 Hall, G. S. (1920). Youth. New York, NY: A. Appleton. Hughes, B. (2001) Evolutionary Playwork and reflective analytic practice. London: Routledge. Lloyd, Bronwen and Howe, Nina (2003) Solitary play and convergent and divergent thinking skills in preschool children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 22–41 Mellou, E. (1994). Play theories: A contemporary review. EarlyChild Development and Care, 102, 91–100. Moore, N. V. et al.. (1974). Solitary play: some functional reconsiderations. Developmental Psychology, 10, 830–834. Murphy, L.B. (1962). The widening world of childhood. New York: Basic Books Peller, L.E. (1952). Models of children’s play. Mental Hygiene, 36, 66-83. Piaget, J. (1962). Play dreams and imitation in childhood. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. Rubin, K.H., et al. (1983). Play. In: E.M. Hetherington (ed.) Mussen’s Handbook of child psychology. New York: Wiley. P.693-741 Russ, S. W. (1995). Play psychotherapy research: State of the science. In T. H. Ollendick and R. J. Prinz (eds.) Advances in clinical psychology, 17. New York: Plenum. P.365–391 Saracho, Olivia N., Spodek (1995). Children’s play and early childhood education: insights from history and theory. Journal of Education, 177(3), 129-148 Stagnitti, K. (2004). Understanding play: the implications for play Assessment. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 51, 3–12 Stagnitti, K. Unsworth, C. (2000). The importance of pretend play in child development. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63, 121–127. Takhvar, M. (1988). Play and theories of play: a review of the literature. Early Child Development and Care, 39, p.221-244. Tharp, R. and Gallimore, R. (1988) Rousing minds to life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1966). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Voprosy Psikhologii, 12, 62–76. Vygotsky, L. S. 1976 ‘ Play and its role in the mental development of the child’ in J. Bruner,A. Jolly, K. Sylva (eds), Play: its role in development and evolution, New York: BasicBooks. p6-18 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wehman. P. and Abramson, M. (1976). Three theoretical approaches to play. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 30(9), 551-559

Plot Overview of Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller :: Death of a Salesman Arthur Miller Essays

Plot Overview of Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller As a flute melody plays, Willy Loman returns to his home in Brooklyn one night, exhausted from a failed sales trip. His wife, Linda, tries to persuade him to ask his boss, Howard Wagner, to let him work in New York so that he won't have to travel. Willy says that he will talk to Howard the next day. Willy complains that Biff, his older son who has come back home to visit, has yet to make something of himself. Linda scolds Willy for being so critical, and Willy goes to the kitchen for a snack. As Willy talks to himself in the kitchen, Biff and his younger brother, Happy, who is also visiting, reminisce about their adolescence and discuss their father's babbling, which often includes criticism of Biff's failure to live up to Willy's expectations. As Biff and Happy, dissatisfied with their lives, fantasize about buying a ranch out West, Willy becomes immersed in a daydream. He praises his sons, now younger, who are washing his car. The young Biff, a high school football star, and the young Happy appear. They interact affectionately with their father, who has just returned from a business trip. Willy confides in Biff and Happy that he is going to open his own business one day, bigger than that owned by his neighbor, Charley. Charley's son, Bernard, enters looking for Biff, who must study for math class in order to avoid failing. Willy points out to his sons that although Bernard is smart, he is not "well liked," which will hurt him in the long run. A younger Linda enters, and the boys leave to do some chores. Willy boasts of a phenomenally successful sales trip, but Linda coaxes him into revealing that his trip was actually only meagerly successful. Willy complains that he soon won't be able to make all of the payments on their appliances and car. He complains that people don't like him and that he's not good at his job. As Linda consoles him, he hears the laughter of his mistress. He approaches The Woman, who is still laughing, and engages in another reminiscent daydream. Willy and The Woman flirt, and she thanks him for giving him stockings. The Woman disappears, and Willy fades back into his prior daydream, in the kitchen. Linda, now mending stockings, reassures him. He scolds her mending and orders her to throw the stockings out.

My Educational Philosophy :: Philosophy of Education Teaching

My Educational Philosophy When I become a teacher I will strive to better my student’s life not only intellectually, but also socially and emotionally. I will strive to learn from them as much as I teach them; in hopes to become a better teacher to my future pupils. I was inspired to do this by a special teacher who is also my ideal teacher. Mr. Bishop, my junior high teacher, was a big role model to me; he is a teacher whom I model myself after. He is a teacher who always had an answer to everything. Sometimes, I think that he must be the wisest man I know. If you ever needed help he was there for you. Mr. Bishop is a teacher to this day that I trust in and talk to, and I think that’s the way every teacher should be. I hope that after I graduate and become a teacher that I will be someone’s role model or someone a student can come and talk to when they may have a problem and can trust in. As an educator I want to motivate my students to learn. I hope to build their confidence and self-esteem to overcome fears of failure and strive to reach their goals and dreams. There are many reasons why I want to become a teacher, but the main reason would be that I love the feeling of helping someone be the best person they can be. When I think that I would have a part in this process it makes all my efforts worth everything. Teachers play a very vital role in today’s society. Without teachers there would be no doctors, lawyers, or any other professions. Every skilled working person in America can attribute some of his or her abilities or skills to a teacher. A good teacher does not only teach curriculum, but he or she also teaches children about life. A classroom should make children feel emotionally fit, because not all of them have that stability at home. A good teacher laughs with their students, but knows when to be serious. Children need good teachers, and I intend to become one. When I become a teacher, my classroom will consist of many different colors to give the children a sense of a fun atmosphere.

Pibrex Russia Essay

Then plant lacks a strong organisational culture; communications within and between departments are poor; there is inequity between in wages, working conditions and training and problems with motivation and employees is prevalent. Pibrex International is losing interest in the Russian operation and two sub-cultures exist within the Pibrex Russian organisation. The new General Manager, Elena Michasilova must develop an action plan that can turn the operations around to breakeven point by the year 2000 at minimal cost to the company. This reportoutlines to Elena Michailova considers both the external environmental (Political, economicsocialand organisation factors affecting Pibrex Russia and analyses why the plants are underperforming in a difficult economic environment and outlines four different unique strategies retrenchment, price leadership, quality leadership and export orientation) makes recommendations that Elena Michailova can implement to overcome the numerous organizational and financial challenges that the company faces. It establishes a viable export orientate strategy and industry leading restructuring programme, called Challenge 2000 that Elena can quickly implement to overcome these challenges she faces managing Pibrex Russia at minimal cost to the company. Implementation of both will lead Pibrex back to profitability by the year 2000 This report illustrates what the management team has done to begin a turnaround of the firm and the problems that remain. In particular, the company must reassess its management strategies and take steps to masintain its competitive position Introduction: This report considers both the external environmental and organisation factors affecting Pibrex Russia and analyses why the plants are underperforming in a difficult economic environment and makes recommendations that Elena Michailova can implement to overcome the numerous organizational and financial challenges that the company faces. It establishes a viable strategy and industry leading restructuring programme, called Challenge 2000 that Elena can quickly implement to overcome these challenges at minimal cost to the company. Background. Pibrex is one of the world’s largest producers of petrochemical based polymers for the plastics market. The company has purchased a plant in Russia and after three years of serious operating losses and has appointed a new general manager of the plant. The plant lacks a strong organisational culture; communications within and between departments are poor; inequity in wages, working conditions, and training exist but motivation and retention problems are prevalent. Pibrex headquarters is losing interest in the Russian operation and two sub-cultures exist with Pibrex Russian organisation. Two subcultures exist within the company because there is two separate manufacturing plants. The first plant is Pibrex KAZ, which is one the site of the original plant in Kalingrad. The other plant is the recently purchased (1993) Pibrex KZ plant which is just outside Moscow. In addition Pibrex opened a sales and marketing office in St Petersburg (called Pibrex AO) and a head office in the capital city of Moscow (called PibrexRussia). In contrast to the two manufacturing facilities Pibrex AO and Pibrex Russia were staffed with people from Pibrex’s other overseas operations and enthusiastic young graduates such as Elena. In 1994 Pibrex KAZ, Pibrex KZ, Pibrex A) and Pibrex Russia were grouped together into Pixbrex Region Europe North. However, within Pibrex’s decentralized governance structure, the regional subsidiaries were able to decisions autonomously In 1997 the management of PREN Europe North took steps to stem the losses at Pibrex KZ. Pibrex Russia was shut down and the sales and marketing department merged with Pibrex KZ. At Pibrex KZ over half the production workers were laid off and prices were raised to increased margins, but this only had the effect of eroding sales even further. A macroeconomic shock came in the form of the Russian Financial Crisis (RFC). This preceded the Global Financial Crisis. As a result of the RFC, Pibrex’s sales slipped even further and management was now fully involved in crisis management with the ultimate goal being survival. Whereas in the past Pibrex had relied on a decentralized governance structure, on this occasion, Pibrex formed a â€Å"steering committee† to direct strategy in its Russian operations. The steering committee reassigned Elena as the new Financial Controller and asked her to perform a financial audit on all of Pibrex’s Russian operations. They also decided to concentrate on reducing costs and increasing profits wherever possible. Sales activity was limited to only the largest and most profitable of customers. Also, the steering committee took various steps to control all finances as well as reduce all expenditures. The steering committee as Elena to serve as Managing Director and Financial Controller of all Pibrex’s Russian operations pending a submission of a full set of key issues facing Pibrex and a clear set of recommendation on Pibrex with the view to reaching breakeven point by 2000. This is that set of recommendations. Identification of Key Issues and Challenges. Pibrex Russia is faced with a multitude of problems and challenges that it needs to deal with as it progresses through 1988 and 1999, if it is to break even by the year 2000. ?The following is a synopsis of the most critical issues a)The Financial Situation in Russia Pibrex Russia faces very challenging external factorsthat make for a very difficult external environment as a result of the Russian financial crisis The unstable financial situation bought about by the RFC means that Pibrex Russia is strugging to increase its revenues and reduce its costsdue to rampant inflation; a dramatically devalued Russian currency, the ruble; the evodus of foreign investment funds; the financial collapse of many Russian small to medium enterprises, multiple bank faces and an increasing unskilled, unmotivated and cynical workforce. This unstable financial situation means that Pibrex’s costs (particularly of raw materials) is going up and increasing company failures will mean it will be more difficult to make sales. It will have difficulty finding plant finance and to attract and retain employees with the right skills. (b)Difficulties in the Internal Operating / Accounting Environment. The internal operating environment of the company also seemed very chaotic, like the external environment. There was a lack of internal accounting controls, which I assume would eventually impede the dire to drive down costs and increase revenues c)Difficulties in the Legal / Regulatory Environment. Since reentering Russian in 1992, the Russian government has imposed a number of operating conditions on PR that undoubtedly prevent PR from operating at optimal efficiency. Russian law required each of Pibrex’s subsidiaries to maintain separate bank account and pay local taxes (p125). There were also many other bureaucra tic hassles (d)Difficulties with Organisational Issues. Organisational obstacles included PR never being legally registered as the Russian mother company. The Russian subsidiaries were opened at different times and were therefore registered as different entities. Also the distance between the subsidiaries were substantial leading to taxation constraints. (e)Difficulties with Old and Poorly Maintained Plant and Buildings. The old plant and poorly maintained and buildings reduces the effectiveness of production, potentially creates health and safety concerns for the workers but more than that, it severely affects the morale of the workers who see it as ineptitude on the part of management and indicative of how they value the production workers. f)Poor Management and Employee Relations There are old and deeply held resentments between factory workers and middle management whom the factory workers believe â€Å"stole† the workers share of the company when privatization. This resentment has never gone away. The workers were also deeply resentful of the dual wage structure whereby sales and management staff who were transferred Pibrex AO (the Moscow sales and marketing office were given shiny new facilities while the production workers had to work in cold and outdated factories. (g)Cultural Conflict within Pibrex Russia In my opinion the main problem facing Pibrex is the cultural conflict between the factory workers and the company’s management. There are many subcultures at play within Pibrex Russia. This arises because Pibrex Russia itself is a merger between the old Pibrex Russia, Pibrex AO, Pibrex KZ and Pibrex KAZ. As a result of being part of the old Soviet Russia there is a rigid, bureaucratic and authoritarian culture which affects the production workers, and management. Characteristics of this culture included strong power distance, adherence to authority, belief in hierarchy, clear lines of communication, and strong uncertainty avoidance. Under this environment top managers did not delegate, middle managers did not make the decisions that they need to, whereas production workers looked for clear direction. This authoritarian culture was a complete contrast to, and did not fit well with Pibrex’s usual practice of decentralization and delegation. The highly complex and decentralized structure of PREN (Pibrex Region North Europe) which involved two business areas and four functions did not fit with this traditional, authoritarian culture at Pibrex KZ which favoured a more straightforward bureaucratic structure. After the Merger between Pibrex AO and Pibrex KZ there was a definite cultural conflict betweenthe younger, more urban, more entrepreneurial sales and marketing staff from Moscow and the older established production staff and established management staff from Pibrex KZ. (h)International Management losing Interest in Pibrex Russia As a result of all of the above problems listed above, it seems that Pibrex in Gothenburg seems to have lost patience with Pibrex Russia. Accordingly, Pibrex Gothenburg has a firm directive that it wants its Russian operations to return to profitability by 2000. General External Environmental Analysis Pibrex Russa is in the Russian plasticsand chemicals industry. Polymers and resins produced by Pibrex Russia are found in a large number of different Russian industries including packaging, construction equipment, furniture and consumer goods. It was expected that demand for Pibrex’s resins and polymers would remain strong as a result of the need to rebuild Russia’s infrastructure (after the fall of Communism) and to supply the Russian military. Although there were numerous overseas competitors, none of them had established themselves in Russia. Also, there was a strong research and development base In Russia for the development of resins and polymers In late 1990s the external environment in Russia is influenced by the downfall of communism and the RFC. The environment, particularly financial, was characterized by instability and unpredictability. This instability can be traced back to the soviet reforms ofâ€Å"Glasnost† and â€Å"Perestroika. † Russia embraced a programme of rapid economic reform and liberalization which involved removal of financial regulations and freeing up the Russian financial system. Largely, this prgramme of financial and economic reform was not successful and this, in my opinion was one of the main factors leading to the RFC. There was also contagion from the Asian Financial Crisis. The RFC resulted in a currency devaluation , bank and company failures the collapse of the Russian stockmarket, the exit of foreign investment and this lead to a â€Å"black market† economy. Chaos in Russia was not limited to the economy. There was extensive political and social instability as well. The post soviet government was still establishing itself. On a social level this economic and political upheaval led to many social ills and discontent e. g. increased alcoholism. S. W. O. T Analysis AS. W. O. T analysis Strengths A key strength that Pribex has is it’s relationship with its parent company. This relationship is important because Pribex can leverage of the parent company’s international reputation, tacit knowledge, its existing supplier relationships, their research and development facilities and manufacturing processes as well as its customer service and safety standards. Additionally I believe the parent company may be able to provide Pibrex Russia with financial backing, which is particularly important given the financial and economic environment described above. Pribex AO is a strength to Pribex Russia. Their culture is not as divided and its staff and highly trained and motivated. Additionally it is where Elena has come from so it has a history of effective management. Elena herself is a critical strength to the company. She is one of the key managers and is materially contributing to the fdinacial well being of the company. Weaknesses As mentioned before the company, the company has a number of operational weaknesses. The major one is the conflicts that arise in the various subcultures of the company but there are other weaknsses as well such as ineffective financial controls over revenues and costs, poor relations between management and employees generally, a divisive dual wage system and a absence of top management support. The two factories Pibrex KZ and Pibrex KAZ old, use outdated technologies and are not very pleasant to work in. The factories have also been poorly maintained so for these reasons production output is poor. In addition to production weaknesses there are also some financial weaknesses. The company is having difficulty increasing revenues in the current economic environment and reducing costs. The company has been losing money for many years and there is little prospect of returning to profitability Opportunities: Pribex Russia has an opportunity to establish itself as a market leader in the building polymer and resins industry and as the rebuild of Russia infrastructure gets into full swing, it should be able increase revenues and decrease certainly its fixed costs and this may lead to profitability. Additionally Pribex Russia, with its existing research and development facilities has an opportunity to pioneer new polymer applications and establish itself as an innovator in the market. As the Russian economy is reformed Pibrex Russia has the opportunity to improve its financial situation and develop a reputation as an innovator in the industry. Threats: The macroeconomic analysis above indicated that the RFC and the instability and uncertainty that it brings to the financial sector as the major threat to Pibrex. It is a threat because it makes it more difficult for Pibrex to increase revenues and reduce costs. The RFC also threatens the company’s ability to raise capital and to reward its works appropriately leading to resentment amongst workers. The other major macroeconomic threat is the political instability that exists within Russia and makes it difficult for Pibrex management to forward plan and affects confidence. If Pibrex pursues a â€Å"price leadership strategy† then it faces threats from competitors, both domestic and foreign, who can produce products cheaper and therefore charge lower prices than pribex thus undermining their price leadship strategy If Pibrex pursues a â€Å"product leadership† strategy based on quality it faces competitive threats from both domestic and foreign competitors who can beat Pribex’s current quality standards (which are affected by their aging, inefficient plants). Four Strategies that Can Be Implemented at Pibrex Elena should recommend the following four quite different strategies to the management of Pibrex. 1. Retrenchment Strategy. Under this strategy Pibrex Russia should retrench its operations and closing the aging loss making Pibrex KZ plant and focus on modernizing its Pibrex KAZ plant. This would eliminate all of the problems associated with the older Pibrex KZ plant mentioned above and this would help restore confidence in Pribex Russia with the parent company. The downside is that it would minimize opportunities for further growth and expansion 2. Price Leadership Strategy. To minimize the macroeconomic risks mentioned above and return the company to profitability the company could pursue a competitive strategy based on price leadership. Under this strategy Elena would aggressive pursue domestic production from both manufacturing plants through a low price strategy, which would provide more work for the current production workers. To implement a successful price leadership strategy Pibrex may need to draw up on the financial resources of the parent company. Pibrex would aggressive pursue and develop new customers though aggressive advertising (with support from the parent company). In order to adapt a successful price leadership strategy PR would need to aggressively control costs, establish strict financial controls and eliminate the vtwo tier wage structure 3. Quality Leadership Strategy. To minimize the macroeconomic risks to the company it could pursue a strategy based on quality. Under this strategy it would draw on the parent company’s tacit knowledge and research and development facilities to become a quality leader in the area of building polymers and resins. Elena would lead an aggressive sales strategy based on world leading research and innovation and become a centre of excellence based on quality. This sales strategy would be to mainly domestic customers and the strategies relies on a considerable upswing in sales, as a result of infrastructure building to correct the company’s financial situation and return to profitability by the year 2000. To assist in selling to the rejuvenated domestic market, Elena would draw upon the sales `skills and sales teams already existing in the parent company. Pibrex Russia would become a domestic leader based on this Quality Leadership strategy. 4. Export Focused Strategy. Under this strategy Pibrex would split its manufacturing plants so that the older plant, Pibrex KZ would supply solely the domestic market, and the more modern plant Pibrex KAZ would supply the export market. The more modern plant would be chosen to serve the export market because more quality and innovation is required. Success in export markets would require additional attention to the company’s quality management processes. This dual strategy should ensure there is enough work for all the factory workers. Additionally an export led strategy would benefit from any currency devaluation. This dual strategy and the increased attention to quality control may, in the short term require additional capitl funding that the parent company would need to provide. Overall Implentation Plan for Elena. It is recommended that Elena implements an export focused strategy. This strategy would take advantage of the company’s strengths (being the parent company’s knowledge, reputation, resources and sales strategies) as well as minimizing its weaknesses (under-capacity, bitterness between workers and culture conflicts). It would reduce the tensions between workers, increase production and reduce the overcapacity problem. This export focused strategy does not initially minimize all of Pibrex’s weaknesses (such as poor financial controls and lack of head office commitment) but these weaknesses maybe corrected over time. To successfully implement this export focused strategy I recommend implementing a change programme called â€Å"Challenge 2000† which will draw on Pibrex’s strengths and minimize the company’s weaknesses. Challenge 2000 will be led by Elena as well as supported by the Steering Committee and PREN management. Challenge 2000 will have eight distinctive steps that will ensure success: 1. Demand sufficient capital investment from the parent company to allow for the repair and upgrade of the Pibrex KZ plant, implementation of a new sales incentive sub-programme and a quality sub-programme based on research and innovation. . Complement the increased efficiency at the Pibrex KAZ and the upgraded Pibrex plant by removing excess layers of management 3. To this reduction in management layers by creating an efficiency sub-programme bthat implements inventory, cost and revenue controls throughout Pibrex russia 4. Alleviate employee resentment and bitterness by eliminating the dual wage programme, and implementing an aggressive bonus incentive programme that rewards both local export sales. 5. Implement the export focusedmarketing strategy but aggressive pursue all domestic leads as well 6. Develop a marketing plan as part of this marketing strategy for both the domestic and export markets. 7. Have Pibrex aggressively pursue all sales leads in domestic and export markets. 8. Co-ordinate production schedules to the marketing plan using just in time inventories Conclusion. This paper outlines four different implementation strategies that Elena Michailova can chose and recommends an export focused strategy for Pribesx Russia. The successful implementation of this export focused strategy complemented with the eight step Challenge 2000 program will ensure that Pibrex will be restored to profitability by the year 2000. Challenge 2000 is a viable low cost change program that will certainly impress PREN management. The successful implantation of both will be replicated in Priex’s plants throughout the world which will see Elena Michailova, the once young bright inexperienced manager, rise over time to be the world wide Chief Operating Officer for Pirbex